The TL/DR...

  • Despite more than 50 years of progress following the enactment of Title IX in 1972, women remain underrepresented in collegiate sports making up 55% of undergraduate students but accounting for only 44% of NCAA student-athletes.
  • Because decisions about budgets, facilities, scholarships, staffing, and recruiting can affect opportunities for women in college sports, efforts to increase their participation requires schools to invest equitably across all sports, not just highly visible programs.
  • Sport managers can expand opportunities in college sports for all students by using data to guide the fair allocation of resources, supporting inclusive athletic environments, and advocating policies that promote equitable athletic programs.

Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 opened doors for female athletes who were interested in playing collegiate sports. This landmark civil rights law prohibits discrimination based on sex in education programs and activities, including athletics, that receive federal financial assistance. Before Title IX became law, the participation of women in college athletics was significantly less than what it is today. Female athletes faced obstacles that made it difficult for them to engage in athletics, including a culture that emphasized the participation of male athletes in sports. In the more than 50 years since Title IX became law, the participation and visibility of female athletes in college sports have increased. Yet, progress has not reached levels that many people in the athletic community had hoped for.

Research shows the existence of a “participation gap” of female athletes in collegiate sports compared to male athletes. Title IX requires that the percentages of men and women in college sports be “substantially proportionate” to their representation in the undergraduate student population. Unfortunately, at many schools belonging to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), this is not the case. The milestone 2024 update to the Acosta-Carpenter Report, a landmark national study on gender participation in intercollegiate sports, shows that women currently account for about 44% of NCAA student-athletes. However, they represent 55% of the entire undergraduate student body population. These findings, based on federally mandated data collected by the U.S. Department of Education under the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, demonstrate that women remain proportionately underrepresented in college sports. While female student-athletes have made progress since the enactment of Title IX, sport industry experts say that more needs to be done to further expand opportunities in collegiate sports for women. Jaqueline McDowell, associate professor of Sport Management and assistant dean for faculty success within the College of Education and Human Development at George Mason University, served as lead scholar on the 2024 Acosta-Carpenter Report Update. She recently shared her thoughts on the participation of female athletes in college sports.

An expansion of opportunities in collegiate sports for female athletes requires an equitable investment across all sports, not just those with high visibility.

The participation of women in collegiate sports depends in large part on how schools allocate the funding of their athletics and sports programs. Decisions about budgets, facilities, scholarships, staffing, and recruiting can significantly affect participation opportunities for female athletes. Researchers say that an expansion of opportunities in collegiate sports for female student-athletes at NCAA institutions requires an equitable investment across all sports, not just those athletics programs that are high-profile or the most visible.

Emerging sports for women can expand opportunities for the participation of female student-athletes.

Recognizing the need to close the participation gap between men and women in college sports, the NCAA established its Emerging Sports for Women program. An emerging sport as defined by the NCAA is one that “is intended to help schools provide more athletics opportunities for women and more sport-sponsorship options for institutions, while helping that sport achieve NCAA championship status.” Among the sports that NCAA has designated as an emerging sport are equestrian, flag football, acrobatics and tumbling, rugby, ice hockey, rowing, beach volleyball, triathlon, stunt, and wrestling, to name a few.

Compensation for Female Student-Athletes Under NCAA’s Name, Image, and Likeness Policy

Participating in a collegiate sport can benefit a student-athlete financially by providing them with access to scholarships that otherwise would not be available to them. It can also create opportunities for student-athletes to receive compensation under the NCAA’s Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) policy. The NIL policy allows student-athletes to monetize the use of their name, image, and likeness through product promotion and endorsement contracts made with third parties. These contracts are frequently orchestrated by university collectives which include local businesses, donors, as well as college alums, and they are subject to certain restrictions set by state laws which vary across the country.

However, there is growing concern within the sport management community that structural inequities found within the NIL collectives at some schools disproportionately favor high-profile men’s sports such as basketball and football. Sport management experts warn that these funding disparities can limit the NIL earning opportunities available to female student-athletes. They maintain that colleges and universities should implement support systems that promote more equitable access to NIL resources and opportunities.

The Important Role of Sport Managers in Creating Equitable Opportunities in Athletics Across Genders

Ensuring that all student-athletes, regardless of gender, have fair access to opportunities in collegiate sports is vitally important to their well-being and success. Playing a collegiate sport can help an individual develop teamwork and leadership skills, foster a feeling of self-confidence, and instill a sense of school pride and belonging. Effective sports managers can play a role in making this happen. By using data, sport managers can help schools make decisions about equitable resource allocation and program priorities to ensure that all athletes are supported in an inclusive environment where they can thrive. Professionals who receive training and education in sport management can help future athletes by serving as athletic administrators, policy advocates, or coaches. Whether it is within a college campus environment, a community recreation center, or a K-12 school athletics program, individuals in the sport management field can make a difference in a person’s life by helping them experience the benefits of playing a sport.


To learn more about degree offerings in the Sport Management Program at George Mason University, please visit the program website.